The play Essay Example for Free

The play Essay The play is set in the Dublin slums or tenements in the years of the Iris Civil War 1922 and 1923. The whole play centers on the Boyle family. Juno Boyle is married to Boyle who calls himself Captain Boyle. Boyle is a useless and irresponsible drunkard who shuns the reality of work at every stage in the play, and spends his time in the pub drinking with his friend Joxer Daly. The Boyles have two children Johnny and Mary. Johnny is a sickly individual who has been involved in the Republican movement but he ended up betraying a comrade by the name of Tancred. Johnny spends his days locked up in the house fearful of his life. His mother Juno is a selfless character who is concerned all the time about other people. Juno’s daughter Mary is deeply concerned about appearances. She is a shallow character who seems to judge people and things from the outside. When we meet her at the beginning of the play, we learn she is on strike because of the dismissal of a young girl called Jenny Claffey. Yet we are told from Juno how Mary never had a good word to say about Jenny Claffey in her whole life. The family are told that they will inherit money from a distant relative who has died. Bentham is the solicitor who informs them of this fact. He begins to have a relationship with Mary and she becomes pregnant. Bentham shortly after this abandons her. The Boyles begin to borrow money and accumulate a great deal of debts. The legacy never materializes, and the Boyles are forced to return the borrowed goods. Johnny is dragged off to be shot for the betrayal of Tancred. Juno finally realizes that Boyle will never take on his responsibilities as father and breadwinner and so she leaves him and sets up home with Mary. Themes/Issues Poverty This theme dominates the play at every level. The whole play highlights the cruel irony that while many people were fighting for ideals and principles there were others who were suffering from the debilitating effects of the poverty. Because of the negative effects generated by poverty escapism assumes a major and dramatic element in the lives of characters. Mary’s tragic situation occurs because of poverty. When it becomes clear that the Boyles will not inherit any legacy, Bentham disappears forever abandoning Mary alone to have her baby. Jerry Devine standards of what are essential features in a husband are set out in terms of money. At one stage he tells Mary how the job is worth 3 50 Juno who is the only character rooted in the harsh practical everyday world of necessity realizes that money, hard work, and responsible social commitment are stronger and more realistic values in this world than principles and ideals. Her pragmatic stance on how principles won’t pay butchers is in striking contrast to the incessant evasion from reality inherent in all of the other characters. Religion The theme of Religion is also a dominant feature in the play. The play is set against a strong Catholic background. O Casey makes frequent use of images of Our Lady and the votive light to project an air of realism and authenticity in the play. There are also a variety of different religions, and attitudes expressed throughout the play. One of O Casey’s chief mottos in the play seems to show the co- existence of strong religious convictions, together with a sincere and humane commitment to one’s fellowman. Juno’s faith is sincere, authentic, and traditional. She believes on Johnny’s death that God can do nothing against the stupidity of men, that her husband should be praying novenas for a job, and that what Ireland needs is more piety. On the other hand, Bentham espouses a religion by the name of Theosophy. This is projected as vague and abstract and certainly seems to be compatible with his own shallow commitment to people. Reality and Fantasy The play dramatizes the conflict between the dream world and the world of reality and shows what happens when a character is stripped of his illusions and forced to face reality. Boyle the ‘poseur’ or Paycock struts throughout the world of the play on a false and imaginary sense of his own self- importance. His whole life and career consist in fabricating dreams of his gallant years as a captain fighting heroic feats and sailing the oceans of the world. The news of the legacy provides another outlet to Boyle’s habitual evasion of reality, he sees himself as a potential investor on the Stock Exchange. His whole life is a lie. His pains, which are invented for the sake of shirking and avoiding work, become real to him. His refuses to face up to the truth and reality about Bentham and the deception surrounding the news of the will. When reality invades at the conclusion of the play in the form of Mary’s pregnancy and the actual removal of his material possessions, Boyle is unable to cope. His final entrance dramatized in a drunken fragmentary soliloquy is tragic. His habitual escape into fantasy is pathetically expressed through his drunken pose – ‘ Commandant Kelly died†¦.in them arms†¦..Tell me Volunteer Bullies says he that I died for Ireland’. Mary who represents the younger generation also falls victim to illusion. On her first appearance in the play, she is shown to be on strike for a principle. The oppressive and stifling atmosphere generated by the tenement life forces her to seek escape through Bentham. For her he represents another way of life and values outside the restricting and debilitating atmosphere within the two- roomed tenement. She falls victim to the subtle deception of Bentham’ middle-class gentility. She is blinded by external appearances and ends up a tragic victim of Bentham’s hypocrisy and selfishness At the conclusion of the play, she is forced to return to the reality of the slum life with Juno in spite of all her attempts to escape through learning and books. Answer Juno and the Paycock is a play that was written by Sean OCasey. It is one of the most often performed and highly regarded plays in Ireland. Juno and the Paycock was first staged at the Abbey Theatre, Dublin in 1924. Juno and the Paycock: Tragoi-comedy Tragi-comedy is a kind of writing in which comedy is hovering on the brinks of tragedy. OCasey’s â€Å"Juno and the Paycock† is a tragi-comedy although, on the whole, it is a serious and somber play having much destruction and violence. But there are a number of comic elements in the play which would not fit into the pattern of a tragedy. On the other hand, as the comic elements do not outweigh the tragic ones, it would be inappropriate to label the play as a comedy. It means there is a co-existence in the play of tragic and comic elements and so, the best course is to treat it as a tragi-comedy.

Skeeball and The Secret of The Universe :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the book Skeeball and The Secret of The Universe, the main characters are; Matty-narrorator, Cal-Matty's best friend, Dana, Cal's sister, Finch-the old mant hat works at the arcade, Jennifer-the cute girl Matty likes, with the red sports car, and Jennifer's two roomates, Denise and Claudia.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The conflict of this book is person vs. self because, throughout the whole book, Matty is mad at Cal for getting a job and at the end, he finally realizes he was mad at himself and taking it out on Cal. This book was first person because Matty was talking about what happened to him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This book was about Matty and Cal making an pact on not to get a job because it was their last summer together and they wanted to make it count. Cal ended up getting a job nbeacuse he hated bumming money off of his friends and family. Eventually, Matty ended up getting so mad at Cal he stopped talking to him. Matty had nothing to do anymore since hie best friend was off at work all the time and he was mad at hime, so her started going to the arcade and he didn't like the video games, he liked the carnival games.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One night whgen he was playing skeeball, this old man that worked there, Finch, started giving him a lot of tokens and tips on skeeball. After a couple of weeks of going to the arcade, on his way home, he was going to the Stop and Shop where Cal had been working for a while. Matty was walking through the prking lot when three cute gilrs pulled up in a red sports car, Jennifer, Claudia, and Denise. They asked him the address to the beach house Jennifer's dad had just bought for them. He started giving them the diretions and they told him to get in the car and just show them. When Matty laid his eyes on Jennifer he thought she was the one.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Later on, Matty found out Cal's sister, Dana, liked him. Matty realized that Cal was mad at him, but he didn't know what for. When he found out Dana liked him, he realized Cal was mad at him because of that. Matty kept Finch up-to-date on everything, Dana found out that Matty started playing skeeball so she started playing also. Finch kept telling Matty that he should talk to Dana more often because Finch knew Dana liked Matty.

The Deep Vein Thrombosis Health And Social Care Essay

What is Deep Vein Thrombosis or good known as DVT. Did you of all time heard about blood coagulum? A status which a blood coagulum thrombus signifiers in a vena is known as venous thrombosis. Blood flow through the vena can be limited by the blood coagulum, ensuing in swelling and hurting. Most commonly occurs in the deep vena in the legs, thigh or pelvic girdle but it can still go on elsewhere in the organic structure ( Pai and Douketis, 2012 ) . The larger venas that go through the musculuss of the calf and thigh are deep leg venas. They are non the venas that we can see merely below our teguments, neither are the same as varicose vena. Deep Vein Thrombosis is most common in grownups over age 60 but it can go on at any age every bit good. DVT normally can do intercalation when a portion or all of the blood coagulum in the vena breaks off from the site where it is formed and travel along the venous system. DVT can take to long lasting job. It can damage the vena and do the leg to br eeze through, swell, alter colour and leg sores after old ages. What cause deep vena coagulums to organize? Blood coagulum can organize in venas when you are inactive. For blink of an eye, coagulums can organize if you are paralyzed or sit while on a long journey. Surgery, hurt and malignant neoplastic disease besides can damage your blood vas and lead to blood coagulum. If DVT remain in the legs it can do a few complications including phlebitis and leg ulcer besides can take to pneumonic intercalation. Phlebitis is a status which blood coagulums with redness in superficial vena was seldom cause serious job but if blood coagulum in deep venas go on require instant attending because it can take to intercalation. Deep Vein Thrombosis can do the blood flow in the vena is partly or wholly blocked by the blood coagulum. The common site for DVT is in calf vena and a thigh vena is less normally affected while DVT is seldom happen in other deep venas. There are few alternate names for DVT such as thromboembolism, post-phlebitic syndrome or post-thrombotic syndrome. A pneumonic intercalation is a dangerous complication and long-distance flights may lend to the hazard of DVT or besides known as economy-class syndrome. Coronary bosom disease, being overweight or corpulent, coffin nail smoke, gestation, household history of DVT or recent surgery or hurt besides can take for DVT to go on. A DVT is frequently merely a one-of event after a major operation has been done. However, some people who develop a DVT have an on-going hazard of a farther DVT. If have a blood curdling job or continued stationariness, so everybody are advised to seek for a medical attention or take anticoagulation such as heparin inj ection ( after which they are prescribed Coumadin ) to avoid farther complication.LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 Histopathology Histopathology refers to the microscopic scrutiny of tissue in order to analyze the manifestations of disease. Examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by diagnostician, after the specimen has been processed and histological subdivisions have been topographic points onto glass slides besides can good depict about the histopathology. Sing with DVT, its histopathology is rather complex to understand. Differential diagnostic considerations prior to thrombolytic intervention and surgery should include tumors. Definitive diagnosing can be achieved by a biopsy but CT and MRI besides bring rather a function in naming DVT. However, CT and MRI merely such a waste when the disease is at an advanced phase because any of these scrutinies should be done in the early phase of disease. Based on Phlebol ( 2006 ) , soleal vena was the most frequent site of DVT. At first, primary thrombi would be formed at soleal venas, so its will propagate to proximal venas. The proximal venas would be occluded by fresh thrombi, thenceforth secondary thrombi were made at non-drainage calf venas. Paterson and McLachlin found that most venous thrombi consisted of two parts. One of it is composed preponderantly of fibrin and trapped red blood cell while the other one are composed largely by aggregative thrombocytes. The fibrin-rich parts that attached the thrombi to the vas wall, while the platelet-rich parts localized farther from the site of fond regard. These show that activation of curdling system come before thrombocyte activation and aggregation during the formation of venous thrombi ( Lopez et al, n.d ) . Based on that inf ormation, we know that the usage of anti-platelets drug in venous thrombosis is really limited. Histopathology grounds in DVT shows that coagulation occurs on or nearer to the endothelial surface. When curdling starts on the endothelial surface, thrombocytes may be regrouped to the fibrin coagulum rich in thrombin through adhesive interactions and it will ensue to farther thrombus growing. Based on everything that stated above, we can state that the thrombocyte aggregation localize to parts of the coagulum that are far off from its site of attachment and anti-platelet drugs such as acetylsalicylic acid has prove that it can cut down the hazard of DVT in our cherished life. 2.2 Causes and Risk Factors Deep Vein Thrombosis occurs when a blood coagulums signifiers in a deep vena in our organic structure. DVT ever go on in the legs but it can still go on in your weaponries, thorax, or other countries of your organic structure. The blood coagulum can barricade our circulation or Lodge in a blood vas in our lungs, bosom, or other portion of our organic structure and can do terrible organ harm and can take to decease. This subject will uncover about every causes and hazard factors that can take to DVT. There are many causes and hazard of DVT. Some of that are: A individual will hold DVT when a vena & A ; acirc ; ˆâ„ ¢s inner liner is damaged. There are many factors that can take to this hurt. For instant it can be cause by physical, chemical, or biological factors. Besides, surgery, serious hurts, redness and immune responses besides can be the causes to it. DVT can besides go on when the blood flow is sulky or slow. Stationariness or deficiency of gesture can do sulky or slow blood flow. This status ever occurs after the surgery, bed remainder for a long period and holding a long journey that take a long clip. A status which blood is thicker or more likely tend to coagulate than normal ( thrombophilia ) besides can ensue in DVT. This is due to familial status such as V Leiden factor that increase the hazard of blood curdling. Apart from that, endocrine therapy or birth control pills besides can increase the hazard of blood coagulum. The preventive pill and endocrine replacing therapy ( HRT ) has little increased hazard of DVT since the oestrogen in it can do the blood to coagulate somewhat more easy. Peoples with malignant neoplastic disease or bosom failure can besides increase the hazard for DVT. Usually, probe looking for the cause of DVT may demo malignant neoplastic disease to be the implicit in cause. Older people over the age 60 old ages besides probably to hold DVT peculiarly if they have hapless mobility or holding a serious unwellness that can halt them to make a batch of action. Pregnancy besides increased the hazard for DVT to go on. Normally, within six month after they give birth or while they are pregnant. Dehydration will increase the opportunities for DVT because the blood becomes more gluey an apt to coagulate. As a male, safeguard should be taken because work forces tend to develop a DVT more frequently than adult females. Bing an corpulent individual besides can take to DVT. There are many causes and hazard of DVT that we are incognizant of it for the certain time.DVT can go on anyplace in our organic structure portion and besides can assail everybody in different ages but older people are more vulnerable to it. The most hazardous patient to hold DVT is after holding a surgery because the blood can easy coagulate if it non cared in a good ways. Lack active individuals besides are in a high hazard of DVT since it will do the blood to flux easy and easy to coagulate. DVT besides can be inherited and incorrect pill intake besides can ensue in DVT. In easy word, there are many causes and hazards that can take to DVT and every citizen around this universe should take every safety safeguard to avoid DVT. 2.3 Incidence and Comparison There are many people around this universe that have experience DVT. About 2 million Americans have experienced DVT each twelvemonth without they are recognizing it. Based on Convenient option for DVT ( 2012 ) , the exact incidence of DVT is still unknown in Malaysia but there is turning grounds that DVT is non uncommon in Asians. Based on necropsy surveies, hospital audits of admittance to major infirmaries and besides subclinical DVT in high hazard state of affairss such as after major joint surgeries show that there is increase of the incidence. Harmonizing to Prof Hatem Salem, Head of Department, Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, there is sedate misconception that DVT is rare in Asians because he finds out that Asians excessively are at hazard of DVT ( Convenient option for DVT, 2012 ) . Normally, DVT happen after post-surgeries and a few studies have appeared with high incidence of DVT in orthopaedic patients comparable to Western survey. Dhillon, Askander and Doraisamy ( 19 96 ) suggest that the present pattern of keep backing everyday prophylaxis against thromboembolism in Asiatic patients undergoing bad orthopedic process should be reconsidered. In Western states, DVT occurs in 45 % to 84 % of patients after hip and articulatio genus surgery in the absence of prophylaxis ( Stulberg et al, 1984 ) but there is a steadfast belief that the complications is rather rare in Asiatic patients. Lack of consciousness in Asia of a status that become one of the chief slayer factors in West is due to the religion that thromboembolic disease is rare in Asia. Since DVT ever have been linked with post-operative so every patient that have undergoes surgery should take a good attention of their wellness to avoid DVT. However, there are few sentiments that stated DVT is rare in Asians and the first study was made by Tinckler in 1964 stated that there is rareness of post-operative DVT and pneumonic intercalation in Asians ( Tun et al, 2004 ) . A survey that has been made in a few Asians state like Malaysia, Hong Kong and Japan besides show that there is low incidence post-operative DVT has happened around this state. A few incidences in Asiatics can be taken to do a comparing with the Western to demo differences in frequence of DVT in this universe. In developed states of the Western country show that DVT and attendant pneumonic intercalation is still becomes the figure one menace to post-surgery while in Asian specifically in Malaysia show that there is still low incidence of DVT after the operation done. A survey has been made in United Kingdom to stand for Western hemisphere and Malaysia as Asian & A ; acirc ; ˆâ„ ¢s representator. In UK, Sandler and Martin found that 9 % of patients admitted to a general infirmary died and 10 % of these deceases were due to pneumonic intercalation that originated from DVT of lower limb. Based on a survey made in Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia on 45 patients, merely one positive DVT confirm among 45 patients that have been observed. There is merely 2.2 % and this good consequence show incidence of DVT among patient in Asia is still low ( Tun et al, 2004 ) . In a nut shell, the incidence of postoperative DVT in Asiatic patients is non low as is normally believed and besides it is non high like we know. Larger surveies are needed to settle this contention and happen out all the true fact sing this affair. Based on survey that has been made above, everyday pattern of keep backing prophylaxis in Asiatic patients undergoing bad orthopedic process should be reconsidered. We can reason that DVT is still low in Asians but we should be cognizant of DVT in the hereafter because it is excessively hazardous to take this affair as little things. 2.4 Mortality and Morbidity If DVT is left untreated, there are many bad effects can go on and some of that can ensue in mortality and morbidity. There is short-terms morbidity in DVT such as cardiorespiratory effects that may detain ablactating from mechanical airing and there is besides long-run morbidity like patient-centered effects such as chronic venous inadequacy. Based on Vascular Medicine ( 1998 ) , short-run mortality for DVT patient is reported to run between 7 % and 15 % merely while long-run mortality has record a great figure of deceases for patient with DVT. In a Dutch survey of 355 patients, 90 died during follow up. Patients with a DVT are at hazard for morbidity and mortality since a fragment of the thrombus can embolize to the lungs. Anthony and Bon ( 2004 ) , suggested that about one half of patients with an untreated proximal DVT will develop a pneumonic intercalation within 3 months. In the yesteryear, contrast venography has been used to govern out DVT. Nevertheless, due to some job such as outgo of work force and clip, infinite and equipment and most significantly is it besides associated with morbidity, it was been terminated and been replaced with other machine that can get the better of this job. There are many indicants of short-run mortality of patients with DVT such as malignant neoplastic disease, pneumonic intercalation and major hemorrhage. There are besides many caused that can take to long-run mortality such as malignance, pneumonic intercalation, acute myocardial infarction, ischaemic shot and decoagulant related to bleeding. 2.5 Pathophysiology 2.6 Signs and Symptoms There are few symptoms to acknowledge DVT but frequently DVT occurs without any symptoms. The symptoms of DVT are related to obstructor of blood returning to the bosom and doing a pooling of blood in the leg. Patient with DVT will undergo puffiness of the affected leg and the leg may experience warm and look ruddy. Apart from that, patient calf or thigh may hurt or experience stamp if it is been touch or squeezing or when base or move. There are no symptoms appear if the blood coagulum is little and for some instances, Pulmonary Embolism is the first mark that confirm for DVT. Basically, it can be difficult to observe DVT since some of the symptoms are same with other wellness jobs. Sign and symptoms entirely are non plenty to find the DVT but when hazard factor is take under considerable, so it can assist to find likeliness of DVT. Some of the common mark and symptoms of DVT: Pain Swelling ( hydrops ) Tenderness Inflammation or tegument colour alterations Skin heat Stain Dilatation of venas surface Discomfort when the pes is pulled upward Leg weariness Signs and symptoms occur vary depending on the badness of the status and non all of these symptoms have to happen with deep vena thrombosis. 2.6.1 Conditionss That May Cause Similar Symptoms Patient is advised non to do any early premise in holding Deep Vein Thrombosis if they are undergo the symptom that stated above since there are a figure of different conditions that can do the same mark and symptoms like DVT. Some of the conditions are: Muscles achings and cryings Superficial thrombophlebitis ( blood coagulum that forms in an inflamed portion of a vena near the surface of the organic structure ) Varicose venas ( blood vass that are abnormally conceited and distorted Blood coagulums in arterias Arthritis ( redness of the articulation ) Cellulitis ( infection in tissue under the tegument ) Bone break Lymphedema ( swelling in the custodies and pess caused by extra unstable keeping ) Since DVT symptoms are rather same like other wellness job, patient demand to undergo specific process and particular trial to corroborate the diagnosing or regulation out the other job.Imagination MODALITIES3.1 First Line Evaluation 3.2 Second Line EvaluationIMAGES FEATURE OF PATHOLOGYTREATMENT AND PREVENTIONPrognosisDecision

History of Newspapers In America

The history of the newspaper in America begins in 1619, at roughly the same time as the tradition began in England, and a few decades after the notion of a publicly distributed summary of news began in the Netherlands and Germany. In England, The Weekly Newes, written by Thomas Archer and Nicholas Bourne and published by Nathan Butter (d. 1664), was a collection of news items printed in a quarto format and distributed to their clients, wealthy English landowners who lived in London for 4–5 months out of the year and spent the rest of the time in the country and needed to be kept up to date. First American Newspapers (1619–1780s) John Pory (1572–1636), an English colonist living in the Virginia colony of Jamestown, beat Archer and Bourne by a few years, submitting an account of the activities in the colony—the health of the colonists and their crops—to the English ambassador to the Netherlands, Dudley Carleton (1573–1932). By the 1680s, one-off broadsides were commonly published to correct rumors. The earliest surviving of these was The Present State of the New-English Affairs, published in 1689 by Samuel Green (1614–1702). It included an extract from a letter by the Puritan clergyman Increase Mather (1639–1723) then in Kent, to the governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The first regularly produced paper was Publick Occurrences, Both Forreign and Domestick, first published by Benjamin Harris (1673–1716) in Boston on September 25, 1690. The governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony did not approve of the opinions expressed by Harris and it was quickly shut down. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, notices of current events or opinions were hand-written and posted in public taverns and local churches, who subscribed to gazettes from Europe, or from other colonies, such as The Plain-Dealer, posted in Matthew Potters Bar in Bridgeton, New Jersey. In churches, the news was read from the pulpit and posted on the church walls. Another common news outlet was the public crier. After Harriss suppression, it would not be until 1704 that Bostons postmaster John Campbell (1653–1728) found himself employing the printing press to publicly publish his news of the day: The Boston News-Letter appeared April 24, 1704. It was published continuously under different names and editors for 72 years, with its last known issue published Feb. 22, 1776. The Partisan Era, 1780s–1830s In the early years of the United States, newspapers tended to have small circulation for several reasons. Printing was slow and tedious, so for technical reasons no one publisher could generate enormous numbers of issues. The price of newspapers tended to exclude many common people. And while Americans tended to be literate, there simply werent the large number of readers that would come later in the century. Despite all that, newspapers were felt to have a profound influence on the early years of the federal government. The main reason was that newspapers were often the organs of political factions, with articles and essays essentially making the cases for political action. Some politicians were known to be connected with specific newspapers. For instance, Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804) was a founder of the New York Post (which still exists today, after changing ownership and direction many times during more than two centuries). In 1783, eight years before Hamilton founded the Post, Noah Webster (1758–1843), who would later publish the first American dictionary, began publishing the first daily newspaper in New York City, The American Minerva. Websters newspaper was essentially an organ of the Federalist Party. The paper only operated for a few years, but it was influential and inspired other newspapers that followed. Through the 1820s the publication of newspapers generally had some political affiliation. The newspaper was the way politicians communicated with constituents and voters. And while the newspapers carried accounts of newsworthy events, the pages were often filled with letters expressing opinions. The highly partisan era of newspapers continued well into the 1820s when campaigns waged by candidates John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and Andrew Jackson played out on the pages of newspapers. Vicious attacks, such as in the controversial presidential elections of 1824 and 1828, were carried in newspapers which were essentially controlled by candidates. The Rise of City Newspapers, 1830s–1850s In the 1830s newspapers transformed into publications devoted more to news of current events than outright partisanship. As printing technology allowed faster printing, newspapers could expand beyond the traditional four-page folio. And to fill the newer eight-page newspapers, content expanded beyond letters from travelers and political essays to more reporting (and the hiring of writers whose job was to go about the city and report on the news). A major innovation of the 1830s was simply lowering the price of a newspaper: when most daily newspapers cost a few cents, working people and especially new immigrants tended not to buy them. But an enterprising New York City printer, Benjamin Day, began publishing a newspaper, The Sun, for a penny. Suddenly anyone could afford a newspaper, and reading the paper every morning became a routine in many parts of America. And the newspaper industry got a huge boost from technology when the telegraph began to be used in the mid-1840s. Era of Great Editors, the 1850s By the 1850s the American newspaper industry came to be dominated by legendary editors, who battled for supremacy in New York, including Horace Greeley (1811–1872) of the New-York Tribune, James Gordon Bennett (1795–1872) of the New York Herald, and William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878) of the New York Evening Post. In 1851, an editor who had worked for Greeley, Henry J. Raymond, began publishing the New York Times, which was seen as an upstart without any strong political direction.   The 1850s was a critical decade in American history, and the major cities and many large towns began to boast high-quality newspapers. A rising politician, Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865), recognized the value of newspapers. When he came to New York City to deliver his address at Cooper Union in early 1860, he knew the speech could put him on the road to the White House. And he made sure that his words got into the newspapers, even reportedly visiting the office of the New York Tribune after delivering his speech. The Civil War When the Civil War erupted in 1861, the newspapers, especially in the North, responded quickly. Writers were hired to follow the Union troops, following a precedent set in the Crimean War by a British citizen considered the first war correspondent, William Howard Russell (1820–1907). A staple of Civil War-era newspapers, and perhaps the most vital public service, was the publication of casualty lists. After every major action newspapers would publish many columns listing the soldiers who had been killed or wounded. In one famous instance, the poet Walt Whitman (1818–1892) saw his brothers name on a casualty list published in a New York newspaper following the Battle of Fredericksburg. Whitman hurried to Virginia to find his brother, who turned out to be only slightly wounded. The experience of being in the army camps led Whitman to become a volunteer nurse in Washington, D.C., and to write occasional newspaper dispatches on war news. The Calm Following the Civil War The decades following the Civil War were relatively calm for the newspaper business. The great editors of earlier eras were replaced by editors who tended to be very professional but did not generate the fireworks that earlier newspaper reader had come to expect. The popularity of athletics in the late 1800s meant newspapers began having pages devoted to sports coverage. And the laying of undersea telegraph cables meant that news from very distant places could be seen by newspaper readers with shocking speed. For instance, when the distant volcanic island of Krakatoa exploded in 1883, news traveled by undersea cable to the Asian mainland, then to Europe, and then via transatlantic cable to New York City. Readers of New Yorks newspapers were seeing reports of the massive disaster with a day, and even more detailed reports of the devastation appeared in the following days. The Arrival of the Linotype Ottmar Mergenthaler (1854–1899) was the German-born inventor of the linotype machine, an innovative printing system that revolutionized the newspaper industry in the late 19th century. Before Mergenthalers invention, printers had to set type one character at a time in a laborious and time-consuming process. The linotype, so-called because it set a line of type at once, greatly sped up the printing process, and let daily newspapers make changes more easily. Mergenthalers machine-made multiple editions easier to routinely produce editions of 12 or 16 pages. With extra space available in daily editions, innovative publishers could pack their papers with large amounts of news which previously may have gone unreported. The Great Circulation Wars In the late 1880s, the newspaper business received a jolt when Joseph Pulitzer (1847–1911), who had been publishing a successful newspaper in St. Louis, bought a paper in New York City. Pulitzer suddenly transformed the news business by focusing on news that he thought would appeal to common people. Crime stories and other sensational subjects were the focus of his New York World. And vivid headlines, written by a staff of specialized editors, pulled in readers. Pulitzers newspaper was a great success in New York, and by the mid-1890s he suddenly got a competitor when William Randolph Hearst (1863–1951), who had spent money from his familys mining fortune on a San Francisco newspaper a few years earlier, moved to New York City and bought the New York Journal. A spectacular circulation war broke out between Pulitzer and Hearst. There had been competitive publishers before, of course, but nothing like this. The sensationalism of the competition became known as Yellow Journalism. The high point of Yellow Journalism became the headlines and exaggerated stories which encouraged the American public to support the Spanish-American War. At Centurys End As the 19th century ended, the newspaper business had grown enormously since the days when one-man newspapers printed hundreds, or at most thousands, of issues. Americans became a nation addicted to newspapers, and in the era before broadcast journalism, newspapers were a considerable force in public life. By the end of the 19th century, after a period of slow yet steady growth, the newspaper industry was suddenly energized by the tactics of two dueling editors, Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst. The two men, engaging in what became known as Yellow Journalism, fought a circulation war that made newspapers a vital part of everyday American life. As the 20th century dawned, newspapers were read in nearly all American homes, and, without the competition from radio and television, enjoyed a period of great business success. Sources and Further Reading Lee, James Melvin. History of American Journalism. Garden City, NY: Garden City Press, 1923.  Shaaber, Matthias A. The History of the First English Newspaper. Studies in Philology 29.4 (1932): 551-87. Print.Wallace, A. Newspapers and the Making of Modern America: A History. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005